Technology and violence in adolescent relationships
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- Created: Friday, 07 June 2019 14:25
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- Published: Friday, 07 June 2019 13:29
- Written by Bernice Patterson
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The discovery of 14-year-old Ana Kriegel’s body within an abandoned farmhouse in May 2018 and the revelation of the alleged perpetrators ages shocked the Irish nation. A location tracker enabled on her phone was disabled at the time of her death, hindering the detection of Ana’s whereabouts. This case highlights the issue of violence and abuse within adolescent relationships and the use of technology, notably social media applications to enable criminal behavior. Violence perpetrated within intimate relationships has resulted in the death of many adults and children in Ireland, according to Women’s Aid reports published in 2018. The creation of a new Irish national helpline for male victims of domestic abuse in May 2019 showcases how societal attitudes are changing in regard to domestic violence as a female gendered issue.
Domestic violence in its traditional sense has taken on a new form in modernity within online platforms, utilising social media applications and their features to perpetrate violent and abusive behaviors. Similarities exist between traditional forms of domestic violence within intimate relationships and online experiences of partner violence and abuse. However, Cyber Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse (CIPVA), which is the utilisation of all types of technology to aid the perpetration of violence and abuse against an intimate partner, differs in magnitude, as the scope of audience and speed at which such incidences of violence and abuse impacts increased victimisation.
Abuse and violence within adolescent relationships according to US studies has become prevalent in recent times, and social media exasperates its application and impact. Findings within US and UK studies observed 73% of students experiencing some form of intimate partner cyber aggression, violence and abuse, while 57% of adolescents knew someone who was being abused physically, emotionally or sexually within their intimate relationships online and offline (Marganski and Melander, 2015; Rynston et al., 2011). A lack of statistical research within an European and Irish context to inform policy, intervention and prevention programmes is concerning.
Society needs to recognise how most young people are entering adult relationships not as blank slates, but with significant intimate relationship experiences from their adolescent period, which influences the formation of relationships in adulthood. Copious research exists within adult experiences of violence and abuse, and adult to child abuse. Research within young people’s intimate relationships aged between 13 to 17 years is scarce. A survey by the Hofstra Coalition Against Teen Dating Violence, reported that 81% of parents surveyed had surmised Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and CIPVA within children and adolescents relationships was not an issue or did not realise it was an issue in society (Meier and Allen, 2009; Rynston et al., 2011).
Nature of technology
Arthur (2011) recognises technology as a moderate arrangement of nature, by where humans harness nature to our own purposes. In defining technology, he gives three meanings to what he believes technology to be. First, how technology fulfils human purposes; second, technology as a collection of components namely robotics; and third, technology as the multitude of devices and engineering practices available to society. Technology has evolved within society’s history, combining elements of past technologies in creating present and future technologies. As these building blocks are formed, new and more complex technologies become available, in essence technology generates itself. Through the understanding of mechanisms and evolution of technology, findings are unearthed in how technology advances through technological systems, recurring through history, as new technologies emerge from the amalgamation of past mechanisations. Technological systems create our world, our wealth, our economies and human way as beings, it is this which separates us from our ancestors. The proposition that technology is parallel and essentially resistant to nature, can be observed within governing issues of warfare, death and upheavals within societies. Perhaps, critical analysis of technology’s evolution lies not in its own creation as technology does not have roots in the natural world, but in human evolution where technology is a product of human making and using (Arthur, 2011; Denton, 2012).
Technology as a tool or perpetrator
As technology evolves the availability of advanced, compact, affordable means of communication and interaction, primarily mobile phones, coincides with societal changes. Social, economic, political and cultural arenas in societies require the utilisation of some segments of technology, as the conditions of membership in society is reliant on technological artefacts of communication. Technology as a tool has been questioned in its confinement, being defined as ‘a device or implement’, especially one held in the hand, being used to carry out a particular function. This definition takes a technological somnambulism perspective, implying technology as a tool is unconnected and unrelated to the human self (Winner, 1986; Pfaffenberger, 1988). Relating technology as a tool in human communication seems insufficient when exploring social interactions, as its value as an instrument gains energy and affective agency within the connections between individuals and groups throughout the globe. The ability of technological systems to interact in human mobility and communication, allows for the social dynamics of care and support of each other. In this regard technology is utilised as a tool to enable the communication between individuals or groups but encompasses far more than just a tool involving interactions between humans who move across time and space (Svasek, 2018). Taking an instrumentalist view, technology as a perpetrator has lacked blame and substance in certain areas within academic research. Social media applications, utilised as a tool in the administration of violence and abuse within children and adolescents relationships, gives a perpetrator many avenues to monitor, intimidate, manipulate, threaten, stalk and control others (Zweig et al., 2013; Stephenson et al., 2018).
Social media
Technological communication platforms such as Skype and social media applications such as Facebook, Snapchat, Whatsapp and Instagram among others, permit new forms of intrusion on a young person’s space. Tighter monitoring and surveillance of one’s actions and instances of violent and abusive behaviors move from private to public arenas through these technologies. Differing aspects of social media applications such as location trackers, accessing personal information and tracking interpersonal communications can be used to perpetrate violence and abuse upon a partner or work colleague. Facebook is one social media platform which allows such abilities; for example, posting a comment or message to a friend’s wall can be used, altered and manipulated by an intimate partner aiming to embarrass or humiliate an individual, showcasing how conversations can and could be manipulated.
‘Snap maps’ is a feature within the social media application Snapchat, which permits the identification of an individual’s exact location and real time activities. This feature can be used as a means of monitoring and controlling an intimate partner, opening a dangerous window for violent and abusive partners to control the activities of their partners and their intimate movements. Abusive partners can gain access to their partner's social media accounts, requiring passwords through psychological and abusive behaviors within the social world transferring across to the virtual world.
A research report of children and adolescents online behaviors in Ireland found that over 60% of primary students, aged between 5 and 12 years of age, utilised some form of technology (phone, iPad, tablet, computers) to access the internet, while 90% of secondary students aged 11 to 18 years of age used their phones. Snapchat, Instagram and Youtube were reported as favourite social media sites to visit (Everri and Park, 2018). Social networking is key within adolescent’s media use to communicate with others, as emerging intimate relationships online are theorised to play a significant role in an adolescent’s development and formation of personality, emotional and psychological well-being (McGinn, 2017). Social media communications serve to connect young people’s physical and virtual worlds, which are psychologically interconnected. Hence, given this connection the challenge is to keep this vulnerable group safe from both psychological and physically harm (Dcya. gov.ie., 2014; Holt, 2018).
The utilization of technology to perpetrate deviant or criminal behavior is increasingly concerning in young people’s online relationships. Physical worlds and virtual worlds which have become psychologically intertwined, offer new measurements of opportunity to behave and act negatively, as mediated communications lower personal intimacy and increase hostility. A disturbing factor for society’s present and future adolescents’ is the growth of relationship violence, as research found that those individuals who suffered abuse and violence, sexual abuse and neglect within their own families as children were highly likely to experience violence within an intimate relationship of their own. Social media facilitates the platform to enable perpetrators to psychologically abuse targeted individuals (Marganski and Melander, 2018; Rakovec-Felser, 2014).
Prevalence
Research studies on violence and abuse perpetrated through online forums within adolescent relationships is in its infancy within Europe, which may be due to the chronic under-reporting of violence and abuse within adolescents’ intimate relationships. According to the AP-NORC Centre for Public Affairs Research at the University of Chicago, an increasing number of young people view violence and abuse online as a problem which society needs to face. Research assessing the behaviors of ‘dating’ relationships within adolescents aged 13-18 years of age, found that 25% of adolescents experienced name calling, harassment or degrading messages from their intimate partners, while 22% endured unwanted sexual requests from their partners and 19% of adolescents reported how their partners used the internet and social networking sites to spread rumours about them. These statistics indicate how CIPVA within adolescent relationships is an issue (Zweig et al., 2013).
Higher prevalence rates of psychological aggression and victimization of women were observed within a systematic review of adolescents and young people’s relationships (Rubio-Garay et al., 2017). Problematic issues to be foreseen within these studies is how limited definitions of CIPVA is proposed and presented to adolescents within these studies, therefore such definitions may influence responses from students within the study (Zweig et al., 2013). Cultural contexts differ within US, European and Irish societies, but human behaviors within online platforms remain the same. The rate of violence and abuse shown within these American and Canadian reports on adolescent intimate relationships warrants and justifies further statistical approach through research and reports within a European and Irish context.
Risk factors
Individuals within certain socio-economic situations, ethnic groups or suffering with a physical or learning disability, are particularly vulnerable to experiencing violence and abuse within their intimate relationships (Barter, 2009). Violence and abuse experienced within a family setting has been found to correlate with children and adolescents increased rate of assaulting a partner later in life (Rynston et al., 2011). Learnt behaviors are observed by children and adolescents within the family, and some argue that these aggressive acts are more likely to be modelled by boys than girls as significant others influence their behaviors (Rakovec-Felser, 2014). Several studies cover aspects of adolescent’s mental health in relation to partner violence and abuse within their relationships (Barter and Stanley, 2016). Psychological abuse has been observed as a significant feature of partner violence and abuse in intimate relationships (Stephenson et al., 2018). Substance abuse, depressive symptoms, diagnosed mental health disorders, feeling suicidal and eating disorders were found to be significantly associated with partner violence and abuse online and offline. In an economically disadvantaged community, partner violence and abuse in adolescents’ intimate relationships was in correlation with a range of licit and illicit substance abuse (Barter and Stanley, 2016).
Straus and Geller (1986) concluded that between 10 and 50 per cent of females experienced violence and abuse within their relationships. Vulnerable phases within the relationship were identified as a high-risk period for the initiation and escalation of violence and abuse within intimate relationships. These dangerous periods have been identified during pregnancy, the ending of a relationship, or as their partners become threatened by a clear indication of change or loss within the relationship. The World Health Organisation (2012) has shown that it is predominantly men who are the perpetrators of violence against women as its frequency and severity is a much larger problem in public health terms. However, some studies have shown that violence and abuse within intimate relationships are not gendered; men too are victims of violence and abuse, albeit more psychological and less physically damaging. Women can be equally violent and display even more frequent violent acts than men towards their partners.
Male violence
Amen is the only organisation in Ireland that supports male victims of domestic violence, providing men with support, intervention, dignity and empowerment. They report 88,000 males in Ireland have suffered severe violence and abuse within their intimate relationships at some time in their lives. We might also note that The Guardian once reported that in the UK, according to men's rights group Parity, more than 40% of domestic violence victims are male. However, only one in twenty men will report such incidences to Gardai, which is concerning, perhaps due to cultural beliefs in society preventing them from seeking help and support. Online violence and abuse affects men as well as women, psychological, sexual and physical violence and abuse is perpetrated with the same methodology and criminal behavior as violence against women within intimate partner relationships. The type of abuse reported varied from severe physical violence and abuse to experiences of psychological and verbal abuse. In 2016, Amen reported 72% of disclosures of abuse were of a verbal and psychological nature. These included allegations of name calling, threats of physical abuse, continual criticism, isolation from family and friends, and being stalked and harassed within the social and virtual worlds. Significantly, society’s lack of understanding due to learnt values, beliefs, norms and expectations of gendered roles, prevents social inclusion, debate and support for male victims of violence within their intimate relationships. The importance of raising awareness for male victims of partner violence in society is crucial to enable and encourage other male victims to come forward and report such incidents, especially male adolescents suffering within an intimate relationship.
Impact of Violence and Abuse
Violence and abuse in adolescents’ intimate relationships negatively impacts on young people’s well-being. Feelings of anger, hurt and fear due to being intimidated, harassed or manipulated affect their mental and physical health. It was identified in a survey of adolescents that over half of those who were victims of cyber partner violence were also victims of physical violence abuse (Stephenson et al., 2018). Plichta (1996) states that intimate partner violence is associated with increased injury, mortality, disability, worse health status, chronic pain, substance abuse and reproductive disorders, especially in victims who are sexually abused and battered. Research also found that experiences of psychological abuse may be increasingly associated with certain health problems such as headaches, arthritis, stammer or stutters, stomach ulcers, spastic colon, indigestion, constipation and diarrhoea. Mental health is a major public issue as correlations have been made between CIPVA and mental health. This is a vulnerable age group who, due to a lack of service provision, are left to cope either on their own or with family members, unqualified to help with mental issues. This places pressure on front-line professionals such as teachers who may be open to disclosures (Barter and Stanley, 2016). Immediate and long-term health has been linked to violence, as studies have reported that those who suffered violence and abuse in childhood or adolescent periods experienced frequent ill health into adulthood. This must be a concern for any nation whose future citizens may endure psychological ill health, physical dysfunction or adopting further risk behaviors in substance abuse (WHO, 2012).
A public health and societal problem
Rakovec-Felser (2014) perceives intimate partner violence and abuse as a public health problem as incidents of violence within a relationship can spill out into various aggressive acts in the community and the wider society. US studies have shown that between a third and a half of all teenagers will suffer from physical, emotional or partner violence within their lives. Social media provides perpetrators with a much larger platform in which to psychological, sexually and physically abuse their intimate partners (Stephenson et al., 2018). Gender impacts on the severity of violence, as girls tend to suffer more severe forms of physical violence and report greater feelings of fear than their male counterparts.
Barter (2009) identifies from previous research how adolescent relationships are often embedded within the wider cultures of unequal gendered power relations, where attitudes, behaviors and emotions of intimidation and sexual aggression are fostered. Work by Dekeseredy (1988), Lavoie et al. (2000) and de Bruijn et al. (2006) showcase how male adolescents who portray an aggressive dominant power within their relationships are often in receipt of support from their peers. Few societies now, but many in the past, have supported a masculine dominance over female populations, which provides a safe haven, where violence and abuse against a partner is tolerated (Barter et al, 2009). Key variables which arbitrate the effects of CIPVA are gender, sexuality, age and mental health needs which should be considered when creating intervention and prevention programmes for adolescents. Minimising or dismissing stress and mental ill health in adolescents due to intimate relationships is widespread. The health, education and social care services need to pay careful attention to violence in all its forms, especially within these new social media platforms.
Conclusions
The nature of technology is rooted within its history as technologies of the past create new and more complex technologies. Arthur (2011), in defining technology explores the very nature of what technology is, concluding, that technology is the creator of itself. Technology as a tool is expanded in its definition as human communication dictates its connection with the human self. Technology as a tool enhances the capabilities of human beings, and as an affective agency, technology gains vibrancy when employed in social interactions across time and space.
Central to children and adolescents' development of identity, sexuality, social and affective competency is the formation of intimate relationships. Social media enables communication that serves to connect young people’s offline and online worlds, worlds that are psychologically interconnected. Challenges arise, due to this interrelatedness, in guarding the vulnerability of this age group from psychological and physical trauma and stress. Research within an Irish context demonstrates the extensive use and access to internet technologies, over 60% of primary students aged between 5 and 12 years of age, and 90% of secondary students aged 11 to 18 years of age. The popularity, availability and immediate access to media sites such as Snapchat, Instagram and Youtube, by young people, raises concern taken in the context of features such as location applications enabling the monitoring and intimidation of an intimate partner.
Social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Whatsapp and Snapchat among others serve adolescents as tools in which to reinforce new and existing relationships. These online communication forums have altered traditional patterns of interaction, as technology is integrated into young people’s offline lives and used to gain information about new entrants in their offline world. Research indicates how the internet has improved social connectedness and well-being within adolescents’ relationships. New types of behavior and activity are enabled by technology which has enhanced adolescents’ lives, but also has inhibited others. Potential harms, threats and false information flood the internet quotidian. Technology means power as access to information conveys currency. Adolescents’ who are normally shy or self-conscious within their offline worlds encounter a liberating process within online platforms (Valkenburg and Peter, 2009). This openness online may carry social costs as data, images and information may be used in an abusive context as perpetrators utilize social media to intimidate, manipulate and violently abuse their victims. Technology and the internet has altered the way in which we perceive and understand our world and relationships (Stephenson et al, 2018). Data and information collected online, as a result of social interactions and access to platforms to do so, is problematic in its manipulation and management, presenting significant logistical challenges to the well-being of our future citizens (Borgman, 2015).
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Bernice Patterson, a mature student and a mother, has just completed the BA Criminology at University College Cork.
